Bat Reservoirs for Rabies Virus and Epidemiology of Rabies in Colombia: a review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21615/cesmvz.12.2.5Resumen
La rabia es una enfermedad zoonóticas mortal causada por un virus ARNneurotrópico de la familia Rhabdoviridae. La enfermedad se caracterizapor encefalitis y es responsable de múltiples muertes anuales de personasy animales. Quirópteros insectívoros, frugívoros y hematófagos son losprincipales transmisores, reservorios y vectores del virus. En Colombia, untotal de 35 casos de rabia humana fueron reportados entre 2000- 2014,veintidós de ellos fueron transmitidos por murciélagos. La variante genéticaV3 (murciélagos hematófagos) fue responsable de 24 muertes humanas,mientras que la variante genética V4 (murciélagos insectívoros) causó tresmuertes humanas. La enfermedad es transmitida al humano principalmente por gatos infectados que pudieron haber cazado murciélagos infectados. El diagnósticose realiza mediante la detección del virus en animales rabiosos y técnicas comoRT-PCR podrían utilizarse para promover la vigilancia activa de las poblaciones demurciélagos. La rabia es una enfermedad prevenible y la vacunación en animalesdomésticos confiere inmunidad protectora, sin embargo, la cobertura de vacunaciónen animales domésticos en Colombia es aún limitada. Esta revisión recoge datosepidemiológicos de las variantes genéticas del virus en especies de quirópteros reportadascomo transmisores del virus en el mundo y enfatiza en los casos de rabiareportados en Colombia durante las últimas décadas.
Bat Reservoirs for Rabies Virus and Epidemiology ofRabies in Colombia: a review
Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease caused by a neurotropic RNA virus partof the family Rhabdoviridae. The disease is characterized by encephaliticinflammation and is responsible for a number of annual fatal deaths ofpeople and animals in the world. Chiropters such as insectivorous, frugivorousand hematophagous bats are the major transmitters, reservoirs,and vectors of the rabies virus. In Colombia, a total of thirty-five cases ofhuman rabies occurred between 2000 2014. Of the thirty-five cases twenty-two were transmitted by bats. The genetic variant V3 (hematophagousbats) were responsible for 24 human deaths, while the genetic variant V4,carried by insectivorous bats, caused three human deaths. The disease ismainly linked to infected cats that may have hunted infected bats and thentransmitted the virus to humans. Diagnosis is usually made by detectionof the virus from infected animals and techniques such as RT-PCR, whichmight be used to promote active surveillance in bat populations. Rabies isa preventable disease and vaccination of pets confers protective immunity,however, vaccination coverage of pets in Colombia is still limited. This reviewarticle collects epidemiological data of rabies virus genetic variantsassociated with chiropters species that have been reported to transmit thevirus in the world and emphasizes on rabies cases reported in Colombiaduring the last decades.
Keywords: Chiroptera, genetic variants, Rhabdoviridae, zoonotic diseases.
Reservatórios de morcegos do vírus da raiva e epidemiologiada raiva na Colômbia: uma revisão
A raiva é uma enfermidade zoonótica fatal causada pelo vírus neurotrópico do ARNda família Rhabdoviridae. A enfermidade é conhecida por encefalite e é responsáveldas numerosas mortes anuais de animais e pessoas. Quirópteros e insetívoros, frugívorose sanguessugas são os principais transmissores, reservatórios e vetores dovírus. Na Colômbia o Instituto Nacional de Saúde relatou um total de 35 casos de raivahumana entre 2000- 2014. Vinte dois deles foram transmitidos pelos morcegos.A variante genética V3 (morcegos hematófagos) foi responsável de 24 mortes humanas.Enquanto a variante genética V4 (morcegos insetívoros) provoco três morteshumanas. A enfermidade está ligada principalmente á os gatos infectados que poderiamter caçado morcegos infectados e, em seguida, transmitida a os seres humanos.Diagnóstico e normalmente feito a través da detecção do vírus em animais raivosose técnicas tais como RT- PCR poderiam se utilizar para promover a vigilânciaativa das populações de morcegos. A raiva é uma enfermidade evitável em animaisdomésticos cuja vacinação confere imunidade protetora, no entanto, a cobertura devacinação em animais de estimação na Colômbia ainda é limitada, precisando demais cobertura. Este artigo de revisão recolha dados epidemiológicos e variantesgenéticas do vírus, e a diversidade de espécies de morcego reportado como transmissoresdo vírus no mundo. O manuscrito também resume os principais casosde raiva reportados na Colômbia nas últimas décadas e enfatiza a necessidade dereforçar a vigilância ativa para o diagnóstico de raiva em morcegos em todo o país.
Palavras-chave: Chiroptera, doença zoonótica, Rhabdoviridae, variantes genéticas.
Descargas
Referencias bibliográficas
of lyssaviruses from bats and other vertebrates. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2012;10
(2): 69–79. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2012.01.003.
2. Jackson AC. Rabies. 3rd Editio. (Elsevier Inc, red). Canada: Academic Press; 2013.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-396547-9.00001-8.
3. Williamson JG. Rabies: Symptoms, Treatment And Prevention. (Williamson J g., red).
New york: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.; 2010. http://www.novapublishers.com.
4. Kuzmin I V, Mayer AE, Niezgoda M, et al. Shimoni bat virus, a new representative
of the Lyssavirus genus. Virus Res. 2010; 149 (2): 197–210. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.
2010.01.018.
5. Kuzmin I V, Turmelle AS, Agwanda B, et al. Commerson’s leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros
commersoni) is the likely reservoir of Shimoni bat virus. Vector Borne
Zoonotic Dis. 2011; 11 (11): 1465–1470. doi:10.1089/vbz.2011.0663.
6. Sato G, Tanabe H, Shoji Y, et al. Rapid discrimination of rabies viruses isolated
from various host species in Brazil by multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase
chain reaction. J Clin Virol. 2005; 33 (4): 267–273. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2004.11.015.
7. Craig Greene. Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat. 4th Edition. (elsevier, red).;
2012. https://www.elsevier.com/books/infectious-diseases-of-the-dog-and-cat/
greene/978-1-4160-6130-4
8. Scheffer KC, Iamamoto K, Asano KM, et al. Murciélagos hematófagos como reservorios
de la rabia. Rev Peru Med Exp Salud Publica. 2014;31(2):302–309. http://www.
scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1726-46342014000200018&lng=
en&nrm=iso&tlng=en\nhttp://www.scielosp.org/pdf/rpmesp/v31n2/
a18v31n2.pdf.
9. Condori Condori RE, Streicker DG, Sanchez CC, Velasco Villa A. Enzootic and epizootic
rabies associated with vampire bats, peru. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013; 19 (9):
1463–1469. doi:10.3201/eid1809.130083.
10. OIE. Rabies; 2008. http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Animal_Health_in_
the_World/docs/pdf/Disease_cards/RABIES_FINAL.pdf.
11. Black EM, Lowings JP, Smith J, Heaton PR, McElhinney LM. A rapid RT-PCR method
to differentiate six established genotypes of rabies and rabies-related viruses
using TaqMan TM technology. J Virol Methods. 2002;105 (1): 25–35. doi:10.1016/
S0166-0934(02)00062-9.
12. Mendes W da S, Moura da Silva AA, Fonseca Neiva R, et al. An outbreak of
bat-transmitted human rabies in a village in the Brazilian Amazon. Rev Saúde
Pública. 2009; 43 (6): 1075–1077. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_
arttext&pid=S0034-89102009000600021
13. Hemachudha T, Ugolini G, Wacharapluesadee S, Sungkarat W, Shuangshoti S,
Laothamatas J. Human rabies: neuropathogenesis, diagnosis, and management.
Lancet Neurol. 2013; 12 (5): 498–513. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70038-3.
14. Leung AKC, Davies HD, Ellis Hon KL. Rabies: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and
prophylaxis. Adv Ther. 2007; 24 (6): 1340–1347. doi:10.1007/BF02877781.
15. Stepien AE, Tripodi M, Arber S. Monosynaptic Rabies Virus Reveals Premotor
Network Organization and Synaptic Specificity of Cholinergic Partition Cells.
Neuron. 2010; 68 (3): 456–472. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.10.019.
16. Jackson AC. Rabies virus infection: an update. J Neurovirol. 2003; 9 (2): 253–258.
doi:10.1080/13550280390193975.
17. Dietzschold B, Faber M, Schnell MJ. New approaches to the prevention and eradication
of rabies. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2003; 2 (3): 399–406. doi:10.1586/14760584.2.3.399.
18. McKay N, Wallis L. Rabies: a review of UK management. EMJ. 2005; 22 (5): 316–
321. doi:10.1136/emj.2003.013805.
19. Allendorf SD, Cortez A, Heinemann MB, et al. Rabies virus distribution in tissues
and molecular characterization of strains from naturally infected non-hematophagous
bats. Virus Res. 2012; 165 (2):119–125. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2012.01.011.
20. WHO. Frequently Asked Questions on rabies. © World Health Organization. http://
www.who.int/rabies/resources/SEA_CD_278_FAQs_Rabies.pdf?ua=1. Published
2013.
21. Mantilla JC, Sierra JC, Garcia E, Pradilla G. Forma paralitica de un caso de rabia
humana trasmitida por murciélago, simulando Síndrome de Guillain Barre: Presentación
de un caso de autopsia. Salud UIS. 2010; 42: 139–151. http://www.scielo.
org.co/scielo.php?pid=S0121-08072010000200008&script=sci_abstract&tlng=
es
22. Turmelle AS, Jackson FR, Green D, McCracken GF, Rupprecht CE. Host immunity
to repeated rabies virus infection in big brown bats. J Gen Virol. 2010; 91: 2360–
2366. doi:10.1099/vir.0.020073-0.
23. Sodré MM, Gama AR da, Almeid MF de. Update list of bat species postive for
rabies in brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2010; 52 (2): 75–81. doi:10.1590/
S0036-46652010000200004.
24. Fahl WO, Carnieli Jr P, Galera Castilho J, et al. Desmodus rotundus and Artibeus
spp. bats might present distinct rabies virus lineages. Braz J Infect Dis. 2012; 16
(6): 545–551. doi:10.1016/j.bjid.2012.07.002.
25. Fahl WO, Garcia AIE, Achkar SM, et al. Rabia transmitida por murciélagos en
brasil. Acta Biol Colomb. 2015; 20 (3): 21–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/abc.
v20n3.45481.
26. Johnson N, Aréchiga Ceballos N, Aguilar Setien A. Vampire bat rabies: Ecology, epidemiology
and control. Viruses. 2014; 6 (5): 1911–1928. doi:10.3390/v6051911.
27. Paez A, Polo L, Heredia D, et al. Brote de rabia humana transmitida por gato
en el municipio de Santander de Quilichao, Colombia, 2008. Rev salud pública.
2009;11(6):931–943. http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&
pid=S0124-00642009000600009.
28. Favi C M, Bassaletti C Á, López D J, Rodríguez A L, Yung P V. Descripción epidemiológica
del reservorio de rabia en murciélagos de la Región Metropolitana:
Chile. 2000-2009. Rev Chil Infect. 2011; 28 (3): 223–228. doi:10.4067/S0716-
10182011000300004.
29. Badrane H, Tordo N. Host Switching in Lyssavirus History from the Chiroptera
to the Carnivora Orders. J Virol. 2001; 75 (17): 8096–8104. doi:10.1128/
JVI.75.17.8096.
30. Klug BJ, Turmelle AS, Ellison JA, Baerwald EF, Barclay RMR. Rabies prevalence
in migratory tree-bats in Alberta and the influence of roosting ecology and sampling
method on reported prevalence of rabies in bats. J Wildl Dis. 2011; 47 (1):
64–77. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-47.1.64.
31. Oliveira R de N, Souza SP, Vaz Lobo R spinelli, et al. Rabies virus in insectivorous bats:
implications of the diversity of the nucleoprotein and glycoprotein genes for molecular
epidemiology. Virology. 2010; 405 (2): 352–360. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2010.05.030.
32. Silva LHQ da, Cunha EMS, Wagner AP, Cardoso TC, Souza M do C, Ferrai CIL. Isolamento
do virus rabico em molossus ater (Chiroptera: Molossidae) no Estado de
Sao paulp. 1999; 33 (5). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/articles/10689381/
33. Galera Castilho J, Carnieli Jr P, Durymanova EA, et al. Human rabies transmitted
by vampire bats: Antigenic and genetic characterization of rabies virus isolates
from the Amazon region (Brazil and Ecuador). Virus Res. 2010; 153 (1): 100–105.
doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2010.07.012.
34. Baer GM, Adams DB. Rabies in Insectivorous Bats in the United States , 1953-
65. Public Health Rep. 1965; 85 (7): 637–645. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2031685/
35. Humphrey GL, Kemp GE, Wood EG. A fatal case of rabies in a woman bitten by
an insectivorous bat. Public Health Rep. 1960; 75 (4): 317–326. https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1929432/
36. Bell JF. Transmission of rabies to laboratory animals by bite of naturally infected
insectivorous bat. Science (80-). 1959; 129:1490–1491. doi:10.1126/science.
129.3361.1490-a.
37. Nadin Davis SA, Huang W, Armstrong J, et al. Antigenic and genetic divergence of
rabies viruses from bat species indigenous to Canada. Virus Res. 2001; 74 (1–2):
139–156. doi:10.1016/S0168-1702(00)00259-8.
38. Schatz J, Teifke JP, Mettenleiter TC, et al. Lyssavirus distribution in naturally infected
bats from Germany. Vet Microbiol. 2014; 169 (1–2): 33–41. doi:10.1016/j.
vetmic.2013.12.004.
39. P. Sánchez Serrano L, Abellán García C, Díaz García O. Rabia en España. ¿Qué
ocurre con la rabia en quirópteros? Semer - Med Fam. 2003; 29 (5): 268–270.
doi:10.1016/S1138-3593(03)74190-2.
40. Botvinkin A, Poleschuk E, Kuzmin I, et al. Novel lyssaviruses isolated from
bats in Russia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003; 9 (12): 1623–1625. doi:10.3201/
eid0912.030374.
41. Kuzmin I V, Niezgoda M, Franka R, et al. Lagos bat virus in Kenya. J Clin Microbiol.
2008; 46 (4): 1451–1461. doi:10.1128/JCM.00016-08.
42. Markotter W. Molecular epidemiology and pathogenesis of Lagos bat virus, a rabies-
related virus specific to Africa. postgraduate thesis, Faculty of Natural and
Agricultural Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 2007. 185 p. https://repository.
up.ac.za/handle/2263/26844
43. Sugay W, Nilsson MR. Isolamento Do Vírus Da Raiva De Morcegos Hematófagos
Do Estado De Sao Paulo, Brasil. Boletín la Of Sanit Panam. 1966:310–315. http://
hist.library.paho.org/Spanish/BOL/v60n4p310.pdf
44. Núñez Mejía C, Bonelo Perdomo A, Hernández Rojas C, Zapata Osorio J, Torres
Valencia G. Dispersión del virus rabia en areas urbanas de Colombia asociada a
especies de murciélagos que comparten refugios. Rev Asoc Col Cienc Biol. 2010;
22: 68–72. http://www.ojs.asociacioncolombianadecienciasbiologicas.org/index.
php/accb/article/viewFile/89/89
45. Oria M F V, Machado S MC. Determinación de la dieta de algunas especies de
murciélagos (Mammalia: Chiroptera) de la cordillera central de venezuela. FARAUTE
Ciens y Tec. 2007; 2 (2): 5–15. http://faraute.facyt.uc.edu.ve/sites/default/
files/articulos/Determinación de la dieta de algunas especias de murciélagos
(Mammalia: Chiroptera).pdf.
46. Páez A, Nuñe C, García C, Boshell J. Epidemiología molecular de epizootias de
rabia en Colombia, 1994-2002 : evidencia de rabia humana y canina asociada
con quirópteros. Biomedica. 2003; 23: 19–30. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.7705/biomedica.
v23i1.1194.
47. Alarcon Morales A, Osorio mesa E, Bernal Cubides C, Lleras Pizarro A. Aislamiento
De Virus Rabico De Murcielagos En Colombia. Caldasia. 1968; 10: 167–
172. http://www.bdigital.unal.edu.co/33812/1/33727-126546-1-PB.pdf
48. Núñez C, Páez A, Hernández C, Escobar H, Bonelo A. Transmisión del virus de la
rabia entre murciélagos urbanos del departamento del Valle del Cauca, Colombia,
1999-2008. Infectio. 2012; 16 (1): 23–29. doi:10.1016/S0123-9392(12)70054-1.
49. Páez A, Nũñez C, García C, Bóshell J. Molecular epidemiology of rabies epizootics
in Colombia: Evidence for human and dog rabies associated with bats. J Gen Virol.
2003; 84 (4): 795–802. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18899-0.
50. Páez A, Rey G, Agudelo C, et al. Brote de rabia urbana transmitida por perros en
el distrito de Santa Marta, Colombia, 2006-2008. Biomedica. 2009; 29: 424–436.
http://www.revistabiomedica.org/index.php/biomedica/article/view/14
51. Valderrama J, García I, Figueroa G, et al. Brotes de rabia humana transmitida por
vampiros en los municipios de Bajo y Alto Baudó, departamento del Chocó, Colombia
2004-2005. Biomédica. 2006; 26: 387–396. doi:10.7705/biomedica.v26i3.357.
52. Torro G, Martinez M, Saad C, Díaz A, Vega RL. Guía práctica para la atención integral
de personas agredidas por un animal potencialmente transmisor de rabia. 1st ed.
Bogota D.C; 2009. http://www.ins.gov.co/temas-de-interes/Rabia/Guia Rabia.pdf.
53. Páez A, Velasco Villa A, Rey G, Rupprecht CE. Molecular epidemiology of rabies in
Colombia 1994-2005 based on partial nucleoprotein gene sequences. Virus Res.
2007; 130 (1–2): 172–181. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2007.06.008.
54. Páez A, Saad C, Núñez C, Bóshell J. Molecular epidemiology of rabies in northern
Colombia 1994-2003. Evidence for human and fox rabies associated with dogs.
Epidemiol Infect. 2005; 133: 529–536. doi:10.1017/S0950268805003699.
55. Alberico M, Saavedra R CA, García Paredes H. Murciélagos caseros de Cali (Valle del
Cauca - Colombia) House bats of Cali, Colombia. Caldasia. 2005; 27 (1): 117–126. http://
www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0366-52322005000100006
56. INS. Informe final del evento agresiones por animales potencialmente transmisores
de rabia, Colombia 2014.; 2014. http://www.ins.gov.co/lineas-de-accion/Subdireccion-
Vigilancia/Informe%20de%20Evento%20Epidemiolgico/Agresiones%20por%20
animales%20potencialmente%20transmisores%20de%20rabia%202014.pdf
57. Parra E a, Neira M, Roa D. Rabia humana por virus tipo 3 , Bajo Baudó , Chocó. Biomedica.
2004; 24: 237–238. http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/bio/v24n3/v24n3a02.pdf
58. McElhinney LM, Marston DA, Brookes SM, Fooks AR. Effects of carcase decomposition
on rabies virus infectivity and detection. J Virol Methods. 2014; 207: 110–
113. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2014.06.024.
59. OIE. CHAPTER 2.1.13. RABIES. In: Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial
Animals - OIE. ; 2013: 1–26. http://www.oie.int/es/normas-internacionales/
manual-terrestre/acceso-en-linea/
60. Wacharapluesadee S, Tepsumethanon V, Supavonwong P, Kaewpom T, Intarut N,
Hemachudha T. Detection of rabies viral RNA by TaqMan real-time RT-PCR using
non-neural specimens from dogs infected with rabies virus. J Virol Methods.
2012; 184: 109–112. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.05.013.
61. Whitfield SG, Fekadu M, Shaddock JH, Niezgoda M, Warner CK, Messenger SL. A
comparative study of the fluorescent antibody test for rabies diagnosis in fresh
and formalin-fixed brain tissue specimens. J Virol Methods. 2001; 95: 145–151.
doi:10.1016/S0166-0934(01)00304-4.
62. Aravindh Babu RP, Monoharan S, Ramadass P, Chandran NDJ. Evaluation of RTPCR
Assay for Routine Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies in Post Mortem Brain
Samples from Different Species of Animals. Indian J Virol. 2012; 23 (3): 392–396.
doi:10.1007/s13337-012-0109-9.
63. Sambrook J, Russell DW. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Volume 2.
3rd editio. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 2001. doi: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/0092-8674(90)90210-6.
64. Biswal M, Ratho R, Mishra B. Usefulness of reverse transcriptase-polymerase
chain reaction for detection of rabies RNA in archival samples. Jpn J Infect Dis,.
2007; 60 (5): 298–299. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17881871
65. Cardoso Lopes M, Rossignolo Venditti LL, Queiroz LH. Comparison between RTPCR
and the mouse inoculation test for detection of rabies virus in samples kept
for long periods under different conditions. J Virol Methods. 2010; (1–2): 19–23.
doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2009.11.017.
66. Smreczak M, Orlowska A, Trębas P, Żmudziński JF. Application of Heminested
RT-PCR to the Detection of Eblv1 and Classical Rabies Virus Infections in Bats
and Terrestrial Animals. Bull Vet Inst Pulawy. 2008; 52: 15–18. http://www.piwet.
pulawy.pl/jvetres/images/stories/pdf/20081/20081015018.pdf
67. Fooks AR, Johnson N, Freuling CM, et al. Emerging Technologies for the Detection
of Rabies Virus: Challenges and Hopes in the 21st Century. PLoS Negl Trop Dis.
2009; 3 (9): 1–12. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000530.
68. Hoffmann B, Beer M, Reid SM, et al. A review of RT-PCR technologies used in
veterinary virology and disease control: Sensitive and specific diagnosis of five
livestock diseases notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health. Vet
Microbiol. 2009; 139: 1–23. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.04.034.
69. Nazarenko I a, Bhatnagar SK, Hohman RJ. A closed tube format for amplification
and detection of DNA based on energy transfer. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997; 25 (12):
2516–2521. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC146748/
70. Espy MJ, Uhl JR, Sloan LM, et al. Real-Time PCR in Clinical Microbiology : Applications
for Routine Laboratory Testing. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006; 19 (1): 165–256.
doi:10.1128/CMR.19.1.165.
71. Nagaraj T, Vasanth JP, Desai A, Kamat A, Madhusudana SN, Ravi V. Ante mortem diagnosis
of human rabies using saliva samples: Comparison of real time and conventional
RT-PCR techniques. J Clin Virol. 2006; 36: 17–23. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2006.01.009.
72. Jackson AC. Advances in Virus Research Volume 79. Vol 53. First edit. (Margaret
Kielian, Maramorosch K, C. T, reds). Elsevier Inc.; 2011. doi:10.1017/
CBO9781107415324.004.
73. Wasniewski M, Labbe a, Tribout L, et al. Evaluation of a rabies ELISA as an alternative
method to seroneutralisation tests in the context of international trade
of domestic carnivores. J Virol Methods. 2014; 195: 211–220. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.
2013.10.021.
74. Wasniewski M, Guiot AL, Schereffer JL, Tribout L, Mahar K, Cliquet F. Evaluation
of an ELISA to detect rabies antibodies in orally vaccinated foxes and raccoon
dogs sampled in the field. J Virol Methods. 2013; 187: 264–270. doi:10.1016/j.
jviromet.2012.11.022.
75. Ministerio de salud y proteccion social. ¿Que es la rabia?; 2014.
76. WHO. WHO | About rabies. © World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/rabies/
about/en/. Published 2016. Toegang verkry Januarie 25, 2016.
77. Blackwood JC, Streicker DG, Altizer S, Rohani P. Resolving the roles of immunity,
pathogenesis, and immigration for rabies persistence in vampire bats. Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 2013; 110 (51): 20837-20842. doi:10.1073/pnas.1308817110.
78. MINSALUD. Cobertura Municipal de Vacunación Antirrábica de Perros Y Gatos
2014.; 2014. https://www.minsalud.gov.co/sites/rid/Lists/BibliotecaDigital/
RIDE/VS/PP/SA/cobertura-municipal-vacunacion-antirrabica-2014.pdf
Descargas
Publicado
Cómo citar
Número
Sección
Licencia
Derechos de autor 2017 CES Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0.
| Estadísticas de artículo | |
|---|---|
| Vistas de resúmenes | |
| Vistas de PDF | |
| Descargas de PDF | |
| Vistas de HTML | |
| Otras vistas | |
